Chapter 1 What Is Psychology?

What Is Psychology?

Defining any field of knowledge precisely is challenging because disciplines are constantly evolving, and the range of phenomena they study is often broad. This is particularly true for psychology.

Historically, the term "psychology" was thought to originate from two Greek words: 'psyche' meaning soul or mind, and 'logos' meaning science or study. However, the field has significantly moved beyond this early focus to become a scientific discipline.

Psychology today studies processes underlying human experience and behaviour. Its scope covers phenomena at various levels:

• Individual
• Dyadic (interactions between two people)
• Group
• Organisational

These phenomena have both biological and social foundations. Due to this broad scope, the methods used to study them vary widely, depending on the specific aspect being investigated.

A discipline is defined by *what* it studies and, perhaps more importantly, *how* it studies. Formally, psychology is defined as the scientific study of mental processes, experiences, and behaviour in different contexts.

In its scientific approach, psychology uses systematic data collection methods borrowed from both biological and social sciences. The goal is to make sense of this data to build organised knowledge about how the mind works and how it relates to behaviour.

Let's clarify the three key terms in this definition:

Mental Processes: These are internal states of consciousness or awareness that we use when thinking, problem-solving, knowing, remembering, perceiving, or feeling. Mental processes are reflected in brain activity, but they are not identical to it, although interdependent. The mind itself does not have a physical structure or location; it emerges dynamically from our interactions and experiences, organising into a system responsible for mental processes. Psychologists study these processes to understand the mind's functioning and potentially improve our mental capacities.

Experiences: These are subjective in nature, meaning only the person undergoing the experience can be fully aware of it. Experiences are embedded within our consciousness. Psychologists study diverse experiences, from pain in illness or grief to positive feelings in joy or romantic encounters, and even altered states like those induced by meditation or drugs. Experiences are shaped by complex internal (e.g., mood) and external (e.g., social context) conditions. Understanding an experience requires analysing this interplay.

Behaviour: These are the observable or internal responses, reactions, or activities that we engage in. Behaviours can be simple (like blinking due to reflex) or complex (like deciding to watch a movie), short (a sudden reaction) or enduring (a habit). Overt behaviours are outwardly visible (e.g., running). Covert behaviours are internal (e.g., muscle tension during chess). All behaviours are associated with or triggered by stimuli, either from the environment or internal changes. Some psychologists study behaviour as a link between stimulus (S) and response (R), where both S and R can be internal or external.

Psychology As A Discipline

Psychology systematically studies behaviour, experience, and mental processes to understand and explain the mind's operation and how mental processes manifest as behaviour. Unlike everyday observations, which are influenced by personal biases, psychologists strive for systematic and verifiable explanations.

Some psychologists aim for scientific objectivity, seeking consensus on definitions and measurements. Others emphasise the subjective nature of human experience, explaining behaviour from the individual's perspective. Regardless of the approach, the goal is systematic and verifiable understanding.

Though its philosophical roots are ancient, psychology is a young science, formally tracing its beginning to 1879 with Wilhelm Wundt's first experimental laboratory in Leipzig. The nature of psychology as a science is debated, especially with emerging interdisciplinary fields.

Psychology As A Natural Science

Psychology often aligns with natural sciences by applying scientific methods. It was influenced by philosophy (like Descartes) and physics, following a hypothetico-deductive model. This model involves having a theory to explain a phenomenon, deducing a testable hypothesis from the theory, gathering empirical data to test the hypothesis, and revising the theory based on the findings. This approach seeks cause-and-effect relationships for prediction and control of behaviour.

Many psychologists use this approach to develop theories of learning, memory, attention, perception, motivation, and emotion, leading to significant progress. Psychology is also influenced by the evolutionary approach from biological sciences, used to explain behaviours like attachment and aggression based on their adaptive value.

Psychology As A Social Science

Psychology is widely recognised as a social science because it studies human behaviour within its socio-cultural contexts. Humans are not passive recipients; they are influenced by and actively shape their socio-cultural environments. Psychology as a social science focuses on humans as social beings.

The story of Ranjita and Shabnam illustrates how individuals, despite differences, are shaped by their complex social and cultural backgrounds (different family structures, interests). While there might be some predictability in how social environments relate to behaviour, individual variations and the emergence of collective behaviours (like community helpfulness during a flood) can be complex to predict using only simple principles. The story also highlights that even in crises, community responses can vary (helpfulness vs. antisocial behaviour), indicating the influence of socio-cultural context.

Thus, psychology as a social science examines human behaviour and experience focusing on individuals and communities interacting with their socio-cultural and physical environment, acknowledging multiple causes for behavioural phenomena.

Understanding Mind And Behaviour

Historically, the study of the "mind" was set aside in psychology due to difficulties in concretely defining or locating it. However, the concept has regained importance, partly due to work in neuroscience and physics.

The mind is not the same as the brain, though it cannot exist without the brain. The mind is a separate entity that emerges from dynamic organisation of experiences. This distinction is illustrated by neurological cases:

• Patients with surgically removed occipital lobes (involved in vision) still respond correctly to visual cues, suggesting a level of processing beyond physical brain structure.
• An athlete with a lost arm ("phantom arm") continued to feel and attempt to move the missing limb, indicating the persistence of a mental representation independent of the physical body.
• A young man with brain injury believing parents were "duplicates" shows a disconnect between physical brain state and mental perception of reality.

These cases suggest the mind maintains an integrity separate from specific damaged brain parts. Earlier theories proposed mind and body were parallel without interaction. Recent studies in affective neuroscience demonstrate a clear relationship and mutual influence between mind and behaviour (and the body). Positive mental states (visualisation, positive emotions) can significantly impact bodily processes. Studies have shown visualisation improving blood flow in blocked arteries and mental imagery helping treat phobias.

A new field, Psychoneuroimmunology, studies the mind's role in strengthening the immune system, further highlighting the interconnectedness of mental and physical well-being.

Popular Notions About The Discipline Of Psychology

In everyday life, people often act as amateur psychologists, offering explanations for behaviour based on common sense. We develop personal theories about human nature and predict how people might act. However, these popular notions, often based on common sense, can be misleading when compared to scientific psychological findings.

Common sense explanations are frequently based on hindsight – they are offered *after* the behaviour has occurred, explaining very little beforehand. For example, presented with conflicting common sayings like "Out of sight, out of mind" and "Distance makes the heart grow fonder," common sense uses whichever saying fits the outcome after it has happened. Scientific psychology, in contrast, seeks to identify patterns that allow for the prediction of behaviour *before* it occurs.

Scientific findings can contradict common sense. Dweck's study (1975) showed that children who experienced a mix of success and failure and were taught to attribute failure to lack of effort were more persistent than those who always succeeded on easy tasks. This goes against the common sense idea that constant success builds confidence and persistence.

Empirical studies have also debunked common beliefs, such as men being more intelligent than women or women causing more accidents. Similarly, while common sense suggests audience presence hinders performance, psychological studies show it can enhance performance if the task is well-practiced.

Psychology, as a science, differs from fields like astrology or palmistry because it systematically examines propositions based on data to develop principles about human behaviour and psychological phenomena.

Evolution Of Psychology

Modern psychology has a relatively short history, heavily influenced by developments in the West, but originated from ancient philosophical inquiries into the mind and human consciousness. The formal beginning is marked by Wilhelm Wundt establishing the first experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879.

• Structuralism: Wundt and his followers were structuralists, seeking to analyse the basic elements or structure of the mind by studying conscious experience. They used introspection, a method where subjects described their internal mental processes. However, introspection was criticised for being subjective and unverifiable, leading to other perspectives.
• Functionalism: Developed by American psychologist William James, functionalism focused on the *function* of the mind and behaviour – *what* the mind does and *how* behaviour helps people adapt to their environment and satisfy needs. James viewed consciousness as a continuous stream. John Dewey applied functionalism to education, emphasising adaptation.
• Gestalt Psychology: Emerging in Germany in the early 20th century, Gestalt psychology reacted against structuralism's focus on elements. It emphasised the organisation of perception, arguing that our experience is holistic – "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts." We perceive patterns and wholes, not just individual components (e.g., perceiving movement from flashing lights).
• Behaviourism: Around 1910, John B. Watson founded behaviourism, rejecting the study of mind and consciousness as unobservable. Influenced by Pavlov's work on conditioning, behaviourism defined psychology as the objective, verifiable study of behaviour (responses to stimuli). B.F. Skinner further developed and popularised this approach.
• Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis offered a radical view, explaining human behaviour as driven by unconscious desires and conflicts. He developed therapeutic techniques to address psychological disorders by exploring the unconscious mind.
• Humanistic Perspective: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow pioneered the humanistic approach, which presented a more positive view of human nature. It emphasised concepts like free will, self-actualisation (striving to reach full potential), and the inherent dignity of humans, critiquing behaviourism's deterministic view.

These early schools provided diverse perspectives, each with strengths and weaknesses. Later, aspects of structuralism and Gestalt psychology contributed to the rise of the cognitive perspective, focusing on mental processes involved in 'knowing' (thinking, memory, problem-solving, etc.). Cognitive psychology often views the mind as an information-processing system.

Modern cognitive psychology includes constructivism, the view that humans actively build their minds through interaction with the world. Piaget's theory of child development is an example. Vygotsky extended this to socio-cultural constructivism, arguing the mind is shaped by social and cultural processes through interaction with adults.

Some Interesting Landmarks in the Evolution of Modern Psychology

• 1879: Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first psychology laboratory (Leipzig, Germany).
• 1890: William James publishes 'Principles of Psychology'.
• 1895: Functionalism is formulated.
• 1900: Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis.
• 1904: Ivan Pavlov wins Nobel Prize (work on digestion related to conditioning).
• 1905: Binet and Simon develop first intelligence test.
• 1912: Gestalt psychology emerges (Germany).
• 1916: First Psychology Department established (Calcutta University, India).
• 1922: Psychology included in Indian Science Congress Association. Indian Psychoanalytical Association founded by G. Bose.
• 1924: Indian Psychological Association founded. John B. Watson publishes 'Behaviourism'.
• 1928: N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjee publish first textbook on Social Psychology in India.
• 1949: Psychological Research Wing of Defence Science Organisation established (India).
• 1951: Carl Rogers publishes 'Client-Centred Therapy'.
• 1953: B.F. Skinner publishes 'Science and Human Behaviour'.
• 1954: Abraham Maslow publishes 'Motivation and Personality'. Bureau of Psychology established (Allahabad, India).
• 1955: NIMHANS established (Bangalore, India).
• 1962: Hospital for Mental Diseases established (Ranchi, India).
• 1973: Lorenz and Tinbergen win Nobel Prize (ethology).
• 1978: Herbert Simon wins Nobel Prize (decision-making).
• 1981: Hubel and Wiesel win Nobel Prize (vision cells). Roger Sperry wins Nobel Prize (split-brain research).
• 1989: National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) India founded.
• 1997: National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) established (Gurgaon, India).
• 2002: Daniel Kahneman wins Nobel Prize (judgment/decision-making).
• 2005: Thomas Schelling wins Nobel Prize (game theory, conflict/cooperation).

Development Of Psychology In India

The Indian philosophical tradition has a rich history of exploring mental processes, consciousness, and mind-body relations, but this tradition has not significantly shaped modern psychology in India, which has been primarily influenced by Western psychology. However, there are growing attempts to integrate traditional Indian perspectives with modern scientific studies.

Modern psychology in India formally began at the Department of Philosophy, Calcutta University, in 1915, with the introduction of experimental psychology and the establishment of the first laboratory. Calcutta University later started dedicated Departments of Psychology (1916) and Applied Psychology (1938). Pioneers like Dr. N.N. Sengupta (trained in experimental psychology) and Professor G. Bose (influenced by Freudian psychoanalysis, who founded the Indian Psychoanalytical Association in 1922) played key roles. Mysore and Patna Universities also became early centres.

Durganand Sinha's 1986 book outlines four phases of modern Indian psychology as a social science:

1. Till Independence: Emphasised experimental, psychoanalytic, and testing approaches, mirroring Western developments.
2. Till 1960s: Expansion into various branches, with psychologists attempting to link Western concepts to the Indian context.
3. Post-1960s: Shift towards problem-oriented research, focusing on addressing Indian societal problems, recognising the limitations of solely relying on Western psychology.
4. Late 1970s onwards: Phase of indigenisation, seeking culturally and socially relevant frameworks, including approaches based on traditional Indian knowledge systems found in ancient texts.

Contemporary Indian psychology is increasingly contextual, rooted in the socio-cultural environment. It also involves interfaces with neurobiological and health sciences. Psychologists in India are now applied in diverse professional fields, including clinical practice, corporate HRD, advertising, sports, development, and IT.

Branches Of Psychology

Psychology has developed into numerous specialised fields:

• Cognitive Psychology: Studies mental processes like attention, perception, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and language. Uses laboratory experiments and ecological approaches. Often collaborates with neuroscientists and computer scientists.
• Biological Psychology / Neuropsychology: Focuses on the link between behaviour and the physical body, especially the brain, nervous system, immune system, and genetics. Neuropsychology is a subfield studying brain-behaviour relationships, including the role of neurotransmitters and brain imaging techniques (EEG, PET, fMRI). Collaborates with neuroscientists, zoologists, anthropologists.
• Developmental Psychology: Studies changes across the lifespan (conception to old age) – physical, social, and psychological. Examines how biological, socio-cultural, and environmental factors influence characteristics like intelligence, emotion, temperament, and social relationships. Collaborates with various fields concerned with human growth.
• Social Psychology: Explores how individuals are influenced by and influence others within social environments. Topics include attitudes, conformity, obedience, interpersonal attraction, prejudice, aggression, group behaviour, etc.
• Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology: Examines the role of culture in shaping behaviour, thought, and emotion, viewing behaviour as a product of culture in addition to biological potential. Studies behaviour within its socio-cultural context.
• Environmental Psychology: Studies the interaction between human behaviour and the physical environment (temperature, pollution, disasters, workplace design). Research areas include waste disposal behaviour, population issues, energy conservation, and community resource use.
• Health Psychology: Focuses on psychological factors (stress, anxiety) in illness development, prevention, and treatment. Areas include stress and coping, psychological factors vs. health, patient-doctor relations, and promoting healthy behaviours.
• Clinical and Counselling Psychology: Deals with psychological disorders (anxiety, depression, substance abuse) – their causes, treatment, and prevention. Counselling psychology addresses less severe problems, helping people cope with daily challenges and plan careers. Clinical psychologists typically have intensive psychology training; Psychiatrists are medical doctors with specialised training, who can prescribe medication and administer electroshock therapy, unlike clinical psychologists.
• Industrial/Organisational Psychology: Studies workplace behaviour, focusing on employees and organisations. Concerned with training, work conditions, employee selection. Often draws on cognitive and social psychology.
• Educational Psychology: Studies learning processes across all ages. Develops instructional methods and materials, researches learning problems. School psychology is a related field focusing on children's development in school settings, including special needs.
• Sports Psychology: Applies psychological principles to improve sports performance, focusing on motivation and other psychological factors affecting athletes.
• Other Emerging Branches: Reflecting interdisciplinary focus, new areas include aviation, space, military, forensic, rural, engineering, managerial, community, psychology of women, and political psychology.

Psychology And Other Disciplines

Psychology is highly interdisciplinary, overlapping with numerous fields that study human functioning. Knowledge of psychology is relevant to any discipline dealing with people, and psychology benefits from insights from other fields. This has led to increased collaboration across science, social science, and humanities.

(Figure 1.1 illustrates Psychology's central position, connected to a wide range of other disciplines, signifying its relevance and interactions across different domains of knowledge.)

Major disciplines linked to psychology:

• Philosophy: Historically, philosophy explored questions now part of psychology (nature of mind, knowledge, motivation). Modern psychology, though experimental, still draws methods and conceptual understanding from philosophy.
• Medicine/Psychiatry: Recognising the mind-body connection, hospitals employ psychologists. Psychology helps prevent health-hazardous behaviours and promote adherence to medical advice. Psychologists assist in counselling patients with serious illnesses, physical challenges, or in intensive care. Psychiatrists (medical doctors) specialise in psychological disorders but can prescribe medication, unlike clinical psychologists.
• Economics, Political Science, Sociology: These social sciences borrow from and enrich psychology. Psychology contributes to understanding micro-level economic behaviour (consumer behaviour, decision-making). In political science, psychology aids in understanding power, conflict resolution, and voting behaviour. Sociology and psychology together explain individual behaviour within socio-cultural contexts (socialisation, group behaviour, intergroup conflict). Nobel Prizes in Economics have been awarded to scholars applying psychological insights (Simon, Kahneman, Schelling).
• Computer Science: Computer science aims to mimic the human mind (computer structure, memory, processing). Collaboration with psychology advances cognitive sciences, leading to more intelligent and potentially sensitive machines.
• Law and Criminology: Requires psychological knowledge to understand witness reliability, jury decision-making, signs of guilt/falsehood, factors in holding culprits responsible, and appropriate punishment. Research informs the legal system.
• Mass Communication: Media significantly influences public thinking, attitudes, and emotions. Psychology helps understand media impact (e.g., on children), develop effective communication strategies, and understand audience interests for reporting human events (motives, emotions).
• Music and Fine Arts: Psychology explores music's influence on work performance and emotions. Music therapy experiments use specific musical forms (Ragas) for physical ailments.
• Architecture and Engineering: Psychology is relevant in designing spaces (physical/mental comfort in architecture) and mechanical devices (safety, user habits in engineering). Human factors psychology aids in designing user-friendly devices and systems.

In essence, psychology sits at the crossroads of many fields, providing crucial insights into human functioning for diverse areas of knowledge and application.

Psychology In Everyday Life

Beyond theoretical understanding, psychology offers practical solutions to a wide range of problems – personal (family conflicts, child issues), interpersonal (lack of communication), group/community (terrorism, isolation), national, or international (education, health, environment, social justice, conflict, poverty, degradation).

While these problems may require broader reforms, psychological interventions at the individual level are often needed to facilitate change. Many problems stem from unhealthy thinking, negative attitudes, and undesirable behaviours. Psychological analysis provides deeper understanding and effective solutions.

The potential of psychology in solving life's problems is increasingly recognised, visible through media representation of counsellors and therapists discussing various issues. Psychologists work in diverse settings (schools, hospitals, industries, prisons, businesses, military, private practice), helping people address problems.

Knowledge of psychology is also personally relevant. Understanding psychological principles and methods helps in analysing and understanding oneself and one's relationships. It aids in developing positive habits (study techniques), improving learning and memory, making better decisions for personal/interpersonal problems, and managing stress (e.g., exam stress).

Thus, psychology is rewarding both personally (for self-understanding and development) and socially (for contributing to solving societal problems and improving quality of life).

Key Terms

Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition, Cognitive approach, Consciousness, Constructivism, Developmental psychology, Functionalism, Gestalt, Gestalt psychology, Humanistic approach, Introspection, Mind, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, Psychoanalysis, Sociology, Stimulus, Structuralism

Summary

Psychology is a modern discipline focused on understanding complex mental processes, experiences, and behaviour in context. It is viewed as both a natural and a social science.

Major historical schools include structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology, and cognitive psychology.

Contemporary psychology is diverse, with multiple approaches explaining behaviour at different levels. These approaches offer valuable insights and are not mutually exclusive.

Psychologists specialise in various fields, developing theories and solving problems in specific domains like cognitive, biological, health, developmental, social, educational, clinical, environmental, industrial/organisational, and sports psychology.

Psychology is interdisciplinary, collaborating with social sciences (economics, political science, sociology), biosciences (neurology, physiology, medicine), mass communication, and arts. These collaborations lead to fruitful research and applications.

Psychology contributes not just theoretical knowledge but also practical solutions to problems at individual, group, and societal levels. Psychologists work in diverse settings like schools, hospitals, industries, prisons, and private practice.

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